دانشگاه قم پژوهش های تفسیر تطبیقی 2476-4191 12 1 2026 06 22 Description, Explanation, and Comparative-Historical Critique of Literalist and Interpretive Readings of the “Majīʾ al-Rabb” Verses from a Phenomenological Perspective توصیف، تبیین و نقد تطبیقی-تاریخی ظاهرگرایی و تاویل‌گرایی در آیات «مجئ ربّ» با نگاه پدیدارشناسانه 1 18 4275 10.22091/ptt.2026.13544.2495 FA علی مهردوست دانشجوی دکتری. گروه علوم قرآن و حدیث. دانشکده الهیات و معارف‌اسلامی. دانشگاه قم. قم. ایران 0009-0000-5698-0982 جعفر نکونام استاد. گروه علوم قرآن و حدیث. دانشکده الهیات و معارف‌اسلامی. دانشگاه قم. قم. ایران 0000-0002-1511-2748 Journal Article 2025 08 12 توصیف، تبیین و نقد تطبیقی-تاریخی ظاهرگرایی و تأویل‌گرایی در آیات «مجئ ربّ» با نگاه پدیدارشناسانه A Comparative-Historical Analysis and Critique of Literalist and Allegorical Interpretations of the "Coming of the Lord" Verses: A Phenomenological Approach Ali Mehrdust1; Jaʿfar Nekoonam2 PhD Candidate, Department of Qurʾanic Sciences and Ḥadīth, Faculty of Theology and Islamic Studies, University of Qom, Qom, Iran. Email: ali.mehrdust@gmail.com Professor, Department of Qurʾanic Sciences and Ḥadīth, Faculty of Theology and Islamic Studies, University of Qom, Qom, Iran. Email: jnekoonam@gmail.com (Corresponding Author) Abstract The Qurʾanic verses concerning the Coming of the Lord (Majīʾ al-Rabb), particularly Qurʾan 2:210 and 89:22, have long constituted one of the principal focal points of debate in the history of Qurʾanic exegesis. At first glance, the expression "the Coming of the Lord" may suggest a corporeal, spatial, or anthropomorphic meaning. Such an understanding, however, is fundamentally incompatible with the Islamic doctrines of divine unity (Tawḥīd) and transcendence (Tanzīh), both of which categorically reject any corporeality with respect to the Divine Essence. Adopting a comparative-historical approach informed by phenomenology, this study examines the historical development of interpretations of these verses among literalist and allegorical exegetes. It seeks to demonstrate how lived experience, religious language, cultural context, and theological developments have shaped divergent interpretations of these expressions. The findings indicate that, during the earliest period, some Qurʾanic exegetes and transmitters of Ḥadīth understood the Majīʾ al-Rabb ("the Coming of the Lord") Verses within a concrete and imagistic framework, an understanding reflected in certain exegetical and narrational reports. From the subsequent centuries onward, however, with the maturation of theological and philosophical discourse, the dominant trend among Muslim exegetes shifted toward interpreting these verses as referring to the manifestation of the divine command, the disclosure of divine power, the coming of the angels, or the realization of the events of the Day of Resurrection. Literalists, relying on the understanding of the Qurʾan's earliest audience, the absence of explicit contextual evidence for figurative interpretation, and certain transmitted reports, maintained the apparent meaning of the verses. Allegorical exegetes, by contrast, invoked unequivocal (Muḥkam) Qurʾanic verses, rational principles, and the doctrine of divine transcendence to reject any corporeal interpretation. The study ultimately concludes that the earliest understanding of Majīʾ al-Rabb ("the Coming of the Lord") reflects the linguistic and cultural horizon of the Qurʾan's first audience rather than an affirmation of divine corporeality. Consequently, allegorical interpretation within the framework of Islamic monotheistic theology is both necessary and unavoidable. Keywords: Majīʾ al-Rabb Verses; Literalism; Allegorical interpretation; Phenomenology; Divine transcendence; Qurʾanic exegesis Extended Abstract Introduction The issue of Majīʾ al-Rabb ("the Coming of the Lord") has long occupied a central place in Qurʾanic studies and Islamic theology, giving rise to an enduring debate between two principal interpretive approaches: literalism and allegorical interpretation. At first glance, the expressions wa-jāʾa rabbuka ("and your Lord comes") and yaʾtiyahumu Allāh ("Allah comes to them") appear to denote a form of divine coming or presence which, if understood according to its ordinary and literal sense, would imply divine corporeality and spatiality—an implication fundamentally incompatible with the Islamic principles of divine transcendence (tanzīh) and absolute monotheism (Tawḥīd). Consequently, throughout the history of Qurʾanic exegesis, commentators have either upheld the apparent meaning of these expressions or interpreted them figuratively on the basis of linguistic, rational, and theological evidence in order to preserve their non-corporeal significance. From this perspective, phenomenology offers a valuable analytical framework for examining this interpretive divergence. Rather than assessing one interpretation as correct and another as erroneous, it investigates how meaning emerges within the horizon of the lived experience of both the earliest recipients of the Qurʾan and subsequent exegetes. Literalism, therefore, is understood not merely as an exegetical error but as a historically conditioned mode of interpreting the sacred text. Likewise, allegorical interpretation is viewed not simply as a rationalistic response but as an attempt to reconcile Qurʾanic language with the doctrines of divine transcendence, divine justice, and the epistemological coherence of Islamic theology. The principal question addressed in this study is how the interpretation of the Majīʾ al-Rabb ("the Coming of the Lord") Verses evolved from their apparent meaning to rational, theological, and rhetorical interpretations, and how this transformation relates to religious experience, ordinary language, and the cultural contexts of the exegetes. It argues that the earliest understanding of these verses emerged within the imagistic worldview of early Arabian society and was influenced by certain narrational and intertextual traditions. With the subsequent development of Islamic theology and philosophy, however, transcendental and figurative interpretations gradually became the dominant exegetical paradigm. Research Findings A historical examination of the Majīʾ al-Rabb ("the Coming of the Lord") Verses demonstrates that literalist exegetes, both in the earliest period and in certain later interpretations, emphasized the literal meaning of the divine "coming." This approach is reflected in a number of narrations, early exegetical works, and comparative readings alongside other religious traditions. Within this interpretive framework, majīʾ signifies a form of divine presence on the Day of Resurrection, sometimes described as occurring together with the angels, clouds, or cosmic signs. Some later literalists, while explicitly rejecting rational allegorical interpretation, preferred to suspend judgment regarding the modality of this coming, although certain formulations nevertheless tended toward anthropomorphism or the affirmation of direction and location with respect to God. In contrast, allegorical exegetes—including Muʿtazilī, Ashʿarī, Shiʿi, as well as several mystical and philosophical scholars—interpreted the Majīʾ al-Rabb ("the Coming of the Lord") Verses in light of unequivocal (muḥkam) Qurʾanic passages, particularly those affirming God's incomparability with creation. According to this interpretation, the coming of the Lord signifies the manifestation of the divine command, the disclosure of divine power, the coming of the angels, the arrival of the Day of Resurrection, or the direct realization of the divine will. This approach is not only more consistent with the doctrine of divine transcendence but also fully utilizes the figurative, metaphorical, and symbolic capacities of Qurʾanic discourse. Another significant finding of this study is that theological developments in Islamic intellectual history played a decisive role in the transition from literal interpretation to allegorical exegesis. During the early period, when theological and philosophical doctrines had not yet been systematically formulated, exegetical interpretations largely remained at the level of transmitted reports and ordinary linguistic understanding. As theological controversies emerged, however, the need to provide a rational defense of divine unity and transcendence encouraged exegetes to adopt non-corporeal interpretations. Consequently, later exegetical works increasingly sought to reconcile the imagistic language of the Qurʾan with rational-theological principles. From a phenomenological perspective, the most significant feature of the earliest understanding of these verses is not the affirmation of divine corporeality but the emergence of meaning within the sensory and linguistic horizon of the Qurʾan's first audience. In addressing that horizon, the Qurʾan employed expressions that initially evoke the imagery of presence and coming; nevertheless, such imagery does not necessarily imply corporeality. Early literalism should therefore be understood primarily as an interpretation grounded in the horizon of lived experience rather than as an ontological assertion concerning the Divine Essence. Conclusion This study demonstrates that the Majīʾ al-Rabb ("the Coming of the Lord") Verses originated within a particular linguistic and cultural context and gradually came to be interpreted, under the influence of theological, philosophical, and rhetorical developments, through transcendental allegorical readings. Although literalism has historical roots in the understanding of some of the earliest audiences and exegetes, it cannot, by itself, provide conclusive evidence for a corporeal interpretation of these verses. By contrast, allegorical interpretation, grounded in the principles of divine unity, unequivocal Qurʾanic verses, and rational argumentation, offers a more coherent and theologically consistent understanding of these expressions. The phenomenological perspective further demonstrates that this exegetical disagreement is not merely a linguistic dispute but reflects differing horizons of understanding, religious experience, and epistemological frameworks throughout Islamic intellectual history. Accordingly, the allegorical interpretation of the Majīʾ al-Rabb verses is not only justified but indispensable for preserving the coherence of Islamic theology and safeguarding the doctrine of divine transcendence. References The Holy Qurʾan Baḥrānī, Hāshim ibn Sulaymān. (1414 AH). Al-Burhān fī Tafsīr al-Qurʾan. Muʾassasat al-Biʿthah. Fakhr al-Rāzī, Muḥammad ibn ʿUmar. (1420 AH). Al-Tafsīr al-Kabīr (Mafātīḥ al-Ghayb). Dār Iḥyāʾ al-Turāth al-ʿArabī. Ibn Taymiyyah, Aḥmad ibn ʿAbd al-Ḥalīm. (1411 AH). Darʾ Taʿāruḍ al-ʿAql wa al-Naql. Jāmiʿat al-Imam Muḥammad ibn Saʿūd. Māturīdī, Abū Manṣūr. (1426 AH). Taʾwīlāt Ahl al-Sunnah. Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmiyyah. Ṣadūq, Muḥammad ibn ʿAli. (1398 AH). Al-Tawḥīd. Daftar-i Intishārāt-i Islāmī. Ṣanʿānī, ʿAbd al-Razzāq ibn Hammām. (1411 AH). Tafsīr al-Qurʾan al-ʿAzīz. Dār al-Maʿrifah. Ṭabarī, Muḥammad ibn Jarīr. (1412 AH). Jāmiʿ al-Bayān fī Tafsīr al-Qurʾan. Dār al-Maʿrifah. Ṭabāṭabāʾī, Muḥammad Ḥusayn. (1390 AH). Al-Mīzān fī Tafsīr al-Qurʾan. Muʾassasat al-Aʿlamī li-al-Maṭbūʿāt. Zamakhsharī, Maḥmūd ibn ʿUmar. (1407 AH). Al-Kashshāf ʿan Ḥaqāʾiq Ghawāmiḍ al-Tanzīl. Dār al-Kitāb al-ʿArabī. آیات «مجئ ربّ» (بقره: ۲۱۰، فجر: ۲۲) به‌دلیل توصیف «آمدن خداوند»، از موضوعات چالش‌برانگیز تفسیر قرآن بوده و به دو رویکرد ظاهرگرایانه و تاویل‌گرایانه منجر شده‌است. سئوالات این پژوهش شامل تطور تاریخی این تفاسیر، عوامل موثر (پیشاقرآنی، روایی، کلامی) بر آنها و امکان تلفیق فهم عرفی با تنزیه الهی است. هدف این مطالعه، تحلیل تاثیر زمینه‌های تاریخی و فرهنگی بر تفاسیر این آیات با رویکرد پدیدارشناسانه است. روش تحقیق مبتنی بر توصیف فهم اولیه عرب‌های صدر اسلام و نقد تطبیقی-تاریخی ادله ظاهرگرایان و تاویل‌گرایان است. یافته‌ها نشان می‌دهد که فهم ظاهری، ریشه در فرهنگ تصویرگرای جاهلی دارد اما با ظهور نحله‌های کلامی معتزله و اشاعره، تاویل‌های غیرجسمانی مانند ظهور قدرت یا امر الهی غالب شدند. این مطالعه با تلفیق نگاه پدیدارشناسانه و تاریخی، به این نتیجه می‌رسد که اگرچه تفسیر استعاری از آیات ممکن است اما همسوکردن آن با اصل تنزیه و قرائت تاریخی مخاطبان اولیه قرآن، با دشواری‌های اساسی مواجه است. شواهد تاریخی حاکی از غلبه برداشت‌های ظاهرگرایانه در دوره نزول است هرچند گرایش‌های تاویلی نیز از همان آغاز در حال شکل‌گیری بوده‌اند.

https://ptt.qom.ac.ir/article_4275_347bd96d91f4a9be9e81d7c87bc960c2.pdf

دانشگاه قم پژوهش های تفسیر تطبیقی 2476-4191 12 1 2026 06 22 A Comparative Exegetical Study of the Term Naffāthāt: A Critique of the Feminine-Referent Interpretation مطالعه تفسیری تطبیقیِ واژه «نَفّاثات» با تأکید بر نقد انگاره‌ی مونث دانستن مصداق واژه 19 42 4243 10.22091/ptt.2026.14575.2554 FA مرضیه رستمیان استادیار گروه علوم قرآن و حدیث، دانشگاه بین المللی امام رضا علیه السلام، مشهد، ایران 0000-0002-4726-6119 Journal Article 2025 11 18 Among Qurʾanic exegetes, the interpretation of the term naffāthāt in the verse, “and from the evil of the witches, who blow on knots” (Qurʾan 113:4), has long been regarded as a challenging exegetical issue. Determining the meaning of this term and identifying its referents within the context of the verse has generated a wide range of interpretive opinions, as exegetes have approached it through diverse cultural, linguistic, and theological perspectives. In many exegetical works, the referent of the term has been restricted to “female sorcerers,” an interpretation that appears to be influenced more by the social and cultural contexts of exegetical traditions than by the linguistic conventions of the Qurʾan itself. The data for this study were collected through library-based research. By examining the lexical roots of the term, analyzing its Qurʾanic usage, conducting a systematic review of authoritative exegetical sources, and applying the principles of Arabic linguistics alongside extra-textual analysis, this study seeks to establish a more precise and substantiated understanding of both the meaning and referent of the term. The findings indicate that, when the intensive function of the tāʾ (-ah) in naffāthah is taken into account, interpreting this suffix as an indicator of intensification is more consistent with the rules of the Arabic language as well as with textual and extra-textual evidence. Accordingly, the term does not merely denote a physical or sensory act; rather, it signifies the subtle psychological influence of words and satanic insinuations within the context of sorcery, an influence that is not confined to any particular gender. Extended Abstract Introduction The term naffāthāt in the fourth verse of Sūrah al-Falaq, “and from the evil of the witches, who blow on knots” (Qur’an 113:4), has generally been interpreted by early exegetes as an allusion to women practicing sorcery. This interpretation derives largely from the cultural, social, and theological contexts of early exegetes, as well as from prevailing beliefs concerning sorcery and the role of women therein, rather than from the linguistic conventions of Arabic or from historically verifiable evidence concerning the period of revelation. The significance of examining this term lies in the fact that an accurate understanding of it is essential both for elucidating the intended meaning of the verse and for clarifying the relationship between Qurʾanic language and cultural presuppositions. Such an inquiry may also contribute to a more accurate understanding of the representation of women in sacred texts. In many well-known exegetical works, naffāthāt has been interpreted as “women who blow on knots” or “women practicing sorcery,” whereas other scholars, relying on linguistic analysis, have questioned this gender-specific attribution. A significant methodological problem is that many exegetes have attributed a feminine meaning to the term naffāthāt without undertaking a comprehensive examination of the various functions of the tāʾ marbūṭah in Arabic. Linguistic evidence demonstrates that this marker may, in certain contexts, indicate intensification, emphasis, repetition, or a non-gendered characteristic rather than grammatical femininity. The originality of the present study lies in linking lexical and morphological analysis with exegetical investigation and in critically reassessing prevalent interpretations. The methodology of this study is descriptive-analytical and based on library research. Within this framework, the views of lexicographers, exegetes, and grammarians are collected and compared, after which the structure of the term naffāthāt and its probable function within the verse are analyzed. Research Findings An examination of exegetical opinions concerning the verse indicates that the common interpretation of naffāthāt as “women practicing sorcery” represents only one possible understanding and lacks definitive linguistic support. Lexical investigations reveal that the root nafth denotes blowing accompanied by a slight emission of saliva, or an influential breath directed toward something. Within the context of sorcery and incantation, it refers to an act intended to produce psychological effects or to induce harm through suggestion. Accordingly, the term fundamentally denotes an action rather than the gender identity of the agent performing it. Furthermore, a morphological analysis of the term naffāthāt demonstrates that the presence of the tāʾ marbūṭah does not necessarily indicate genuine grammatical femininity. In Arabic, this marker may serve functions other than denoting gender, including intensification, repetition, and the formation of active participles or highly emphatic descriptive forms. In light of the context of the verse and its relationship to the other manifestations of evil mentioned in Sūrah al-Falaq, the evidence supports the view that naffāthāt refers to persistent and effective agents of evil—agents who cause harm through enchantment, psychological suggestion, and mental manipulation. A comparison of exegetical perspectives further demonstrates that some gender-oriented interpretations have been shaped by social contexts and historical attitudes rather than by the unequivocal indications of the Arabic language. By contrast, interpretations emphasizing intensity and repetition in the term are more consistent with both linguistic evidence and the Qurʾanic context. On this basis, it may be concluded that naffāthāt in this verse refers to the concealed and persistent force of evil operating through acts of sorcery, with the primary emphasis being on the infliction of harm through psychological and verbal influence rather than on any restriction to women. Another significant finding of the present study is that, within the structure of Sūrah al-Falaq, this term forms part of a network of external and internal evils alongside the ghāsiq and ḥasad (envy). From this perspective, it conveys a broad and inclusive meaning. Restricting the term to a particular gender therefore diminishes both its semantic scope and the exegetical precision of the verse. Consequently, the interpretation proposed in this study exhibits greater coherence from both a linguistic and a contextual Qurʾanic perspective. Conclusion A more detailed analysis of the findings indicates that the tāʾ in naffāthāt functions primarily as a marker of intensification within the morphological structure of the word rather than as an indicator of grammatical femininity. This interpretation is more consistent with textual and extra-textual analyses grounded in linguistic semantics. The tāʾ thus signifies the intensity and repetition of the act of nafth rather than the gender of its agent. Moreover, an analysis of the transmitted reports concerning the circumstances of revelation and a comparison with other exegetical narrations indicate that restricting the term to “women practicing sorcery” lacks strong linguistic and narrational support. Rather, such an interpretation appears to reflect patriarchal assumptions and the social conventions prevalent during the periods in which many exegetes lived. This finding underscores the importance of reexamining Qurʾanic interpretation through semantic approaches and of distinguishing between the Qurʾanic text itself and historically conditioned, gender-oriented readings. Such an approach can contribute to correcting gender-based misreadings in Qurʾanic interpretation. References Bukhārī, Muḥammad ibn Ismāʿīl. (1407 AH). Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī. Edited by Muṣṭafā Dīb al-Bughā. Dār Ibn Kathīr. [In Arabic]. Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzī, Muḥammad ibn ʿUmar. (1420 AH). al-Tafsīr al-Kabīr (Mafātīḥ al-Ghayb). Dār Iḥyāʾ al-Turāth al-ʿArabī. [In Arabic]. Ibn ʿAqīl, ʿAbdullah ibn ʿAbd al-Raḥmān. (1421 AH). Sharḥ Ibn ʿAqīl ʿalā Alfiyyat Ibn Mālik. Dār al-Fikr. [In Arabic]. Ṣādiqī Tehrānī, Muḥammad. (1406 AH). al-Furqān fī Tafsīr al-Qurʾān bi al-Qurʾān wa al-Sunnah. Muʾassasat al-Aʿlamī li-l-Maṭbūʿāt. [In Arabic]. Sharīʿatī Mazīnānī, Muḥammad Taqī. (n.d.). Tafsīr-i Navīn. Daftar-i Nashr-i Farhang-i Islāmī. [In Persian]. Ṭabarī, Muḥammad ibn Jarīr. (1422 AH). Jāmiʿ al-Bayān ʿan Taʾwīl Āy al-Qurʾān (Tafsīr al-Ṭabarī). Hajar Publications. [In Arabic]. Ṭabāṭabāʾī, Sayyid Muḥammad Ḥusayn. (1352 SH). al-Mīzān fī Tafsīr al-Qurʾān. Muʾassasat al-Aʿlamī. [In Arabic]. Ṭanṭāwī Jawharī. (1425 AH). al-Jawāhir fī Tafsīr al-Qurʾān al-Karīm. Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmiyyah. [In Arabic]. Zamakhsharī, Maḥmūd ibn ʿUmar. (1407 AH). al-Kashshāf. Dār al-Kitāb al-ʿArabī. [In Arabic]. در میان مفسران قرآن، تبیین مفهوم واژه‌ «نَفّاثات» در آیه «وَ مِنْ شَرِّ النَّفّاثاتِ فِی الْعُقَدِ» (فلق: 4) از مواضع چالش‌برانگیز تفسیری بهشمار می‌آید. بررسی دقیق معنای این واژه و شناسایی مصادیق آن در سیاق آیه، همواره با تنوع آرای تفسیری همراه بوده‎است؛ به‌گونه‌ای که مفسران، براساس پیش‌زمینه‌های فرهنگی، زبانی و اعتقادی خویش، برداشت‌های متفاوتی ارائه داده‌اند. در بسیاری از تفسیرها، مصداق این واژه به «زنان ساحر» منحصر شده‌است؛ تحلیلی که بیش از آنکه ریشه در قواعد زبانی قرآن داشته باشد، از زمینه‌های اجتماعی و فرهنگی دوره‌های تفسیری تاثیر پذیرفته است. دادههای این مقاله، از طریق مطالعه کتابخانه‌ای گردآوری شده‌ است و با بررسی ریشه‌ لغوی، تحلیل کاربرد قرآنی، مطالعه نظام‌مند تفاسیر معتبر و بهره‌گیری از قواعد زبان عربی در کنار تحلیل‌های فرامتنی، تلاش می‌شود معنا و مصداقی دقیق‌تر و مستندتر از این واژه بازشناسی گردد. بر پایه‌ یافته‌های این پژوهش، می‌توان نتیجه گرفت که با درنظرگرفتن کارکرد مبالغه برای «ة» در نفاثة، تعبیر مبالغه‌آمیز بودن «ة» با قواعد زبان عربی و تحلیل‌های متنی و فرامتنی سازگارتر است و مقصود از این واژه، فقط عملی فیزیکی یا حسی نیست بلکه نمادی از تاثیر پنهانی و روانی کلمات و القاهای شیطانی در بستر سحر است؛ امری که به جنسیت خاصی اختصاص ندارد.

https://ptt.qom.ac.ir/article_4243_04dec5c61769dbea037207eb78902f01.pdf

دانشگاه قم پژوهش های تفسیر تطبیقی 2476-4191 12 1 2026 06 22 A comparative study of the concept of "Wajh Allāh" (the Face of God) in Qur'an 2:115. مطالعه تطبیقی مفهوم وجه الله در آیه 115 سوره بقره 43 51 3715 10.22091/ptt.2025.12666.2447 FA مریم علیزاده استادیار، گروه قرآن و منابع اسلامی، دانشکده معارف و اندیشه اسلامی، دانشگاه تهران، تهران، ایران. 0000-0002-1709-7115 وحید واحدجوان دانشیار و عضو هیات علمی دانشکده معارف دانشگاه تهران، تهران، ایران، 0000-0003-1443-1007 Journal Article 2025 03 31 A Comparative Study of the Concept of Wajh Allāh in Qurʾan 2:115 Maryam Alizadeh¹; Vahid Vahed Javan² Assistant Professor, Department of Qurʾān and Islamic Sources, Faculty of Islamic Knowledge and Thought, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran. Email: alizade62@ut.ac.ir Associate Professor, Department of Islamic Ethics and Mysticism, Faculty of Islamic Knowledge and Thought, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran. Email: vahedjavan@ut.ac.ir Abstract Wajh Allāh (“the Face of God”) is among the ambiguous (Mutashābih) expressions that appear in several verses of the Noble Qurʾan and whose meaning has long been subject to interpretive uncertainty. Exegetes have approached the interpretation of Wajh Allāh from diverse perspectives, advancing a range of explanations, some of which tend toward anthropomorphism, while others favor figurative interpretation (Taʾwīl). Undoubtedly, a sound understanding of this expression and a critical examination of the various exegetical approaches to it can, first, clarify the ambiguity surrounding the verse and, second, identify the most persuasive interpretation on the basis of multiple lines of evidence. Employing a descriptive-analytical method, this study examines and evaluates the principal exegetical approaches to the concept of Wajh Allāh. The findings indicate that the three major interpretive approaches—tradition-based, theological-philosophical, and mystical—offer distinct understandings of the expression. The integration of these approaches and the utilization of their diverse methods and analytical frameworks contribute to a comprehensive interpretation of Wajh Allāh, while preventing reductionist and overly simplistic readings. Keywords: Wajh Allāh; Qurʾan 2:115; Anthropomorphism (Tajsīm); Assimilationism (Tashbīh) Extended Abstract Introduction According to Qurʾan 3:7, the verses of the Qurʾan are classified into two categories: Muḥkam (clear) and Mutashābih (ambiguous). Owing to their semantic clarity, Muḥkam verses are generally less susceptible to interpretive disagreement, whereas Mutashābih verses have consistently been subject to diverse interpretations. Among these, verses concerning the divine attributes constitute a significant portion of the ambiguous passages. In interpreting such verses, the exegete must take divine transcendence from corporeality as a fundamental hermeneutical principle. One of the most prominent examples is the expression Wajh Allāh (“the Face of God”), whose meaning when attributed to God has long been a matter of interpretive ambiguity. Some exegetes have adopted a literalist reading that tends toward corporealism, while others have interpreted it as referring to the divine attributes of action. A central issue, therefore, concerns the interpretive frameworks employed by exegetes in explaining such verses—whether tradition-based, theological-philosophical, or mystical—and the extent to which each framework yields a coherent and persuasive interpretation. The principal question of this study is: What approaches have Shiʿi and Sunni exegetes adopted in interpreting Wajh Allāh in Qurʾan 2:115, and which approach demonstrates greater explanatory adequacy? The significance of this inquiry extends beyond Qurʾanic studies, as it also contributes to resolving theological misconceptions arising from divergent understandings of the divine attributes. The primary gap that this study seeks to address is the absence of a comparative methodological analysis of the meaning of Wajh Allāh in Qurʾan 2:115— “Whichever way you turn, there is the face of Allah”—from the perspectives of Shiʿi and Sunni exegetes, with particular emphasis on three major interpretive approaches: tradition-based, theological-philosophical, and mystical. The originality of the present study lies in its methodology-oriented comparison of exegetes from both traditions, its focus on a single verse as a case study, and its evaluation of the effectiveness of these approaches in articulating an interpretation consistent with the principle of divine transcendence (Tanzīh). This study employs a descriptive-analytical and comparative methodology. It begins by examining the lexical meaning of the term wajh and subsequently analyzes and comparatively evaluates the tradition-based, theological-philosophical, and mystical interpretations advanced by leading Shiʿi and Sunni exegetes regarding Qurʾan 2:115, with the aim of arriving at a coherent interpretation free from corporealist implications. Research Findings A synthesis of the exegetical views suggests that proponents of the tradition-based approach, relying on narrations transmitted from the Infallibles (‘a.s.), interpret Wajh Allāh through reference to concrete and external manifestations. These manifestations include the qiblah (as the direction of worship), the Prophet (PBUH) and the Imams (‘a.s.) (as divine proofs and intermediaries of grace), and religious acts and rituals such as prayer and pilgrimage. The primary emphasis of this approach is on the outward and practical dimensions of religion and on providing an interpretation accessible to the broader community of believers. Nevertheless, it devotes comparatively less attention to explaining the precise relationship between these manifestations and the Divine Essence. Exegetes employing the theological-philosophical approach, through rational argumentation, philosophical reflection, and careful linguistic analysis, relate Wajh Allāh to abstract and immaterial realities. These include the Divine Essence itself (as a reality not confined by direction or place), God's essential attributes such as knowledge, power, and life, divine pleasure and approval (as the ultimate goal of worship), and God's presence and all-encompassing sovereignty over creation. This approach firmly rejects any corporeal or anthropomorphic interpretation of Wajh Allāh and emphasizes the absolute transcendence of God. Exegetes adopting the mystical approach, drawing upon the principles of theoretical mysticism—particularly mystical monotheism and divine self-disclosure (Tajallī)—interpret Wajh Allāh as the manifestation and disclosure of the Divine Essence within the phenomena of the cosmos. From this perspective, all beings in the universe are signs and manifestations of God, and Wajh Allāh is present throughout creation. This interpretation unveils a deeper layer of meaning embedded within the concept of Wajh Allāh. Conclusion Each of these approaches, in accordance with its particular methodology and objectives, has sought to elucidate the concept of Wajh Allāh, one of the Qurʾan's central theological concepts. Despite their differences, all three approaches concur in rejecting any notion of divine corporeality and in relating Wajh Allāh to the Divine Essence or divine attributes. They differ, however, in methodology and depth of interpretation. The tradition-based approach emphasizes the outward and practical dimensions of religion; the theological-philosophical approach relies on rational argumentation and the absolute transcendence of God; and the mystical approach focuses on divine manifestation and the disclosure of divine perfections within the cosmos. Ultimately, these three approaches should be regarded as complementary rather than mutually exclusive, each contributing to a more comprehensive understanding of the concept of Wajh Allāh. References Abū Ḥayyān, Muḥammad ibn Yūsuf. (1420 AH). Al-Baḥr al-Muḥīṭ fī al-Tafsīr. Dār al-Fikr. [In Arabic]. Baḥrānī, Hāshim ibn Sulaymān. (1416 AH). Al-Burhān fī Tafsīr al-Qurʾān. Bunyād-i Biʿthat. [In Arabic]. Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzī, Muḥammad ibn ʿUmar. (1420 AH). Mafātīḥ al-Ghayb. Dār Iḥyāʾ al-Turāth al-ʿArabī. [In Arabic]. Ibn ʿArabī, Muḥammad ibn ʿAli. (1422 AH). Tafsīr Ibn ʿArabī. Dār Iḥyāʾ al-Turāth al-ʿArabī. [In Arabic]. Ibn ʿĀshūr, Muḥammad ibn Ṭāhir. (n.d.). Al-Taḥrīr wa al-Tanwīr. Muʾassasat al-Tārīkh. [In Arabic]. Saqqāf, Ḥasan ibn ʿAli. (1416 AH). Al-Ṣaḥīḥ fī Sharḥ al-ʿAqīdah al-Ṭaḥāwiyyah. Dār al-Imām al-Nawawī. [In Arabic]. Suyūṭī, ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn Abī Bakr. (1404 AH). Al-Durr al-Manthūr fī al-Tafsīr bi al-Maʾthūr. The Library of Grand Ayatollah Marʿashī Najafī. [In Arabic]. Ṭabarī, Muḥammad ibn Jarīr. (1412 AH). Jāmiʿ al-Bayān fī Tafsīr al-Qurʾān. Dār al-Maʿrifah. [In Arabic]. Ṭabāṭabāʾī, Sayyid Muḥammad Ḥusayn. (1417 AH). Al-Mīzān fī Tafsīr al-Qurʾān. Jāmiʿat al-Mudarrisīn bi al-Ḥawzah al-ʿIlmiyyah bi-Qom. [In Arabic]. Ṭūsī, Muḥammad ibn al-Ḥasan. (n.d.). Al-Tibyān fī Tafsīr al-Qurʾān. Dār Iḥyāʾ al-Turāth al-ʿArabī. [In Arabic]. (وجه‌الله) از جمله آیات متشابهی است که در چند آیه از قرآن کریم آمده و معنای آن با ابهام همراه است. مفسران با رویکردهای مختلف به تفسیر معنای وجه‌الله پرداخته و دیدگاه‌های مختلفی داشتند که برخی را به تجسیم و برخی را به تأویل کشانده است. به طور قطع برداشت صحیح از آیه شریفه که همراه با تحلیل رویکردهای مختلف تفسیری باشد، می‌تواند در گام اول ابهام آیه را برطرف کرده و در گام دوم معنای مرجح را با دلایل متعددی بیان کند. این پژوهش با روش توصیفی-تحلیلی رویکردهای مختلف مفسران روایی، فلسفی کلامی و همچنین مفسران تفسیر عرفانی درباره مفهوم این آیه را مورد تحلیل و ارزیابی قرار می‌دهد. نتایج حاصل از این پژوهش حاکی از آن است که هر سه رویکرد تفسیری متفاوت ارائه می‌دهد و تلفیق بین آن‌ها و استفاده از روش‌ها و تحلیل‌های متفاوت از این رویکرد‌ها به ایجاد تفسیری همه‌جانبه از یک آیه منجر می‌شود و از نگاه تک بعدی و تفسیری سطحی جلوگیری می‌کند. البته تفسیر عرفانی به جهت کشف معنای باطنی آیات از عمق معنایی بیشتری برخودار است

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دانشگاه قم پژوهش های تفسیر تطبیقی 2476-4191 12 1 2026 06 22 A Comparative Analysis of Sunni and Shi‘i Exegetes’ Disagreements Regarding the Faith of the Disciples of Jesus (PBUH) in Verses 111–112 of Sūrah al-Mā’idah بررسی اختلاف مفسران فریقین درباره جایگاه ایمان حواریون 52 76 4316 10.22091/ptt.2026.14150.2542 FA مرضیه جدیدالاسلام دانشجوی دکتری، گروه علوم قرآن و حدیث، دانشکده الهیات و معارف‌اسلامی، دانشگاه قم، قم، ایران 0009-0009-3100-7778 سیده وحیده رحیمی استادیار، گروه علوم قرآن و حدیث، دانشکده الهیات و معارف‌اسلامی، دانشگاه قم، قم، ایران. 0009-0008-0112-2356 Journal Article 2025 10 31 This study employs a descriptive-analytical approach within the framework of comparative exegesis to examine the differences between Sunni and Shi‘i exegetes regarding the status of the faith of the disciples of Jesus (PBUH). The central issue addressed is the divergent interpretations of the disciples’ faith in the Qur’anic verses concerning them, particularly whether their faith reflects initial doubt or steadfast certainty, as portrayed in Sūrahs Āl ʿImrān (Qur’an 3), al-Mā’idah (Qur’an 5), and al-Ṣaff (Qur’an 38). The significance of this study lies in its attempt to reconcile these interpretive differences and to bring exegetical perspectives into closer alignment through contextual analysis and comparative evaluation of exegetical views. The findings reveal that the roots of these disagreements may be traced to factors such as insufficient attention to textual context and linguistic convention, failure to distinguish between literal and figurative expression, historical inconsistencies, and the influence of exegetical reasoning. Based on this analysis, the study proposes the theory of the evolution of faith as an alternative to earlier one-dimensional interpretations. According to this theory, the disciples’ faith developed gradually from its initial stages to the attainment of firm and unwavering certainty. Consequently, the temporary shortcomings reflected in certain Qur’anic accounts should not be understood as negating their ultimate spiritual perfection. The study ultimately contributes to reducing exegetical tensions and fostering greater convergence in Qur’anic understanding. Extended Abstract Introduction Exegetical discussions within the Sunni and Shi‘i traditions concerning the nature of the faith of the disciples of Jesus (PBUH) in the Holy Qur’an have long been characterized by divergent interpretations. In verse 52 of Sūrah Āl ʿImrān (Qur’an 3), verses 111–113 of Surah al-Mā’idah (Qur’an 5), and verse 14 of Surah al-Ṣaff (Qur’an 38), the disciples, as the chosen companions of Jesus, constitute the focal point of an exegetical debate surrounding their request for the “Heavenly Table Spread” (al-Mā’idah). While some exegetes interpret this request as evidence of an initial deficiency in faith and lingering doubt, others regard it as an expression of the desire to attain a higher degree of certainty and a deeper level of inward conviction. Employing an analytical-comparative approach, this study seeks to re-examine the relevant Qur’anic concepts through a systematic contextual analysis while clarifying the stages of faith and the role of divine testing in strengthening religious belief. Moving beyond purely formal dichotomies, it aims to develop a coherent understanding of the disciples’ spiritual trajectory. At the national level, the significance of this study lies in its potential to reduce exegetical fragmentation and promote methodological convergence among Islamic schools of thought. At the international level, it contributes to clarifying the status of these figures, who occupy a shared place within the Abrahamic religious traditions, and to examining the relationship between miracle, certainty, and human agency. Despite a number of scattered studies on the subject, a systematic and critical investigation of the underlying causes of these divergent interpretations remains lacking. Accordingly, the principal research question of this study is as follows: What epistemological foundations and exegetical indicators have shaped the divergent interpretations advanced by Sunni and Shi‘i exegetes concerning the nature of the disciples’ faith? The originality of this study lies in its formulation of the “Theory of the Perfection of Faith,” a model that views the disciples’ faith not as a binary opposition between doubt and certainty, but rather as a gradual developmental process in which temporary weaknesses do not negate their ultimate spiritual perfection. To achieve this objective, the views of Sunni and Shi‘i exegetes were collected through descriptive-analytical and contextual-exegetical methods. Following their classification and a critical examination of their theological and linguistic foundations, these views were subjected to comparative analysis in order to clarify the points of convergence and divergence between the two exegetical traditions and to propose an effective framework for reducing exegetical disagreements. Research Findings The findings of this study may be organized under three principal axes, encompassing the analysis of exegetical interpretations and the formulation of a comprehensive explanatory framework. Examining the Foundations of Exegetical Divergence: The present study demonstrates that the two opposing interpretations of the disciples’ faith are grounded in distinct interpretive premises: a) The Deficiency Reading: This interpretation is based on literalist and syntactic considerations, including the linguistic context of the disciples’ request for the Heavenly Table Spread and the apparent reproach expressed by Jesus (PBUH), as well as on narrative chronology, which situates the event at the initial stage of their faith. Within this framework, faith is conceived as a binary category defined by either doubt or certainty. b) The Perfection Reading: This interpretation is grounded in the thematic context of the Qur’an, particularly the characterization of the disciples as Anṣār Allāh (“Helpers of God”), as well as in mystical and theological principles. According to this reading, the request for the Heavenly Table Spread does not originate in doubt; rather, it reflects the dynamic nature of faith and its progression from transmitted certainty to inward spiritual witnessing, culminating in the attainment of the station of the shāhidīn (“witnesses”). Fundamental Factors Underlying the Divergence: A critical analysis of the exegetical views indicates that these conflicting interpretations stem from several factors, including the conflation of literal and figurative language, inconsistency with the contextual coherence of the Qur’anic discourse, insufficient attention to the linguistic conventions of the period of revelation, historical inconsistencies, and interpretive judgments concerning the referents of pronouns. Collectively, these factors have contributed to the emergence of a dichotomy between portrayals of the disciples’ faith as either deficient or firm and exemplary. Conclusion Through a comparative analysis of Sunni and Shi‘i exegetical perspectives on verses 111–113 of Sūrah al-Mā’idah (Qur’an 5), this study demonstrates that the exegetical dispute concerning the faith of the disciples originates from two contrasting interpretive approaches: the Deficiency Reading, grounded in the apparent linguistic features of the text and the assumption of initial doubt, and the Perfection Reading, grounded in thematic context and the aspiration for a higher degree of certainty. The roots of this divergence lie in methodological differences among exegetes regarding the interpretation of linguistic convention, the identification of pronominal referents, and the maintenance of contextual coherence. Moving beyond formal dichotomies, this study advances the “Theory of the Perfection of Faith” as a more comprehensive explanatory model for understanding the status of the disciples. According to this theory, the disciples’ spiritual development constitutes a gradual and multi-layered process in which temporary weaknesses not only fail to obstruct perfection but also function as divine tests that enhance cognitive and spiritual capacities. Consequently, such temporary deficiencies do not negate the ultimate perfection of their faith. By integrating exegetical evidence from both Sunni and Shi‘i traditions while preserving contextual coherence, this theory presents an eschatological understanding of the disciples’ faith, affirming their exalted spiritual status as exemplars of sincerity and firmly established certainty. References Baḥrānī, Hāshim. (1415 AH). Al-Burhān fī Tafsīr al-Qurʾān. Bunyād-i Biʿthat Publications. [In Arabic]. Ibn Abī Ḥātim, ʿAbd al-Raḥmān. (1419 AH). Tafsīr al-Qurʾān al-ʿAẓīm Musnadan ʿan al-Rasūl. Maktabat Nizār Muṣṭafā al-Bāz. [In Arabic]. Ibn Shahrāshūb Māzandarānī, Muḥammad ʿAli. (1410 AH). Mutashābih al-Qurʾān wa Mukhtalifuh. Bidār [In Arabic]. Javadi Amoli, ʿAbdullah. (1390 SH). Tasnīm: Tafsīr-i Qurʾān-i Karīm. Isrāʾ Publications. [In Persian]. Rashīd Riḍā, Muḥammad. (1424 AH). Tafsīr al-Manār. Dār al-Maʿrifah. [In Arabic]. Ṭabarī, Muḥammad ibn Jarīr. (1412 AH). Jāmiʿ al-Bayān fī Tafsīr al-Qurʾān (Tafsīr al-Ṭabarī). Dār al-Maʿrifah. [In Arabic]. Ṭabāṭabāʾī, Muḥammad Ḥusayn. (1374 SH). Al-Mīzān fī Tafsīr al-Qurʾān. Daftar-i Intishārāt-i Islāmī. [In Arabic]. Ṭabrisī, Faḍl ibn al-Ḥasan. (1372 SH). Majmaʿ al-Bayān fī Tafsīr al-Qurʾān. Nāṣir Khusro [In Arabic]. Ṭūsī, Muḥammad ibn al-Ḥasan. (n.d.). Al-Tibyān fī Tafsīr al-Qurʾān. Dār Iḥyāʾ al-Turāth al-ʿArabī. [In Arabic]. Zamakhsharī, Maḥmūd ibn ʿUmar. (1407 AH). Al-Kashshāf ʿan Ḥaqāʾiq Ghawāmiḍ al-Tanzīl. Dār al-Kutub al-ʿArabiyyah. [In Arabic]. این پژوهش با رویکرد توصیفی-تحلیلی و در چارچوب تفسیر تطبیقی، به بررسی اختلاف‌نظر مفسران فریقین درباره جایگاه ایمان حواریون حضرت عیسی (ع) می‌پردازد. مسئله اصلی تحقیق، تعارض خوانش‌ها از ایمان حواریون، از تردید ابتدایی تا یقین راسخ، در آیات مرتبط با آنان در سوره‌های «آل‌عمران»، «مائده» و «صف» است. اهمیت این مطالعه آن است که می‌کوشد با تحلیل سیاقی و مقایسه دیدگاه‌های تفسیری، راهی برای جمع‌بندی اختلافات و نزدیک‌سازی آرا ارائه کند. یافته‌ها نشان می‌دهد که منشا این اختلافات را باید در عواملی چون غفلت از سیاق و عرف زبانی، عدم تفکیک میان حقیقت و مجاز، ناسازگاری‌های تاریخی و دخالت اجتهادهای تفسیری جستجو کرد. لذا بر پایه این تحلیل، طرح نظریه تکامل ایمان را به‌جای خوانش‌های تک‌بعدی پیشین پیشنهاد می‌کند. نظریه‌ای که ایمان حواریون را فرآیندی تدریجی از مرحله آغازین تا رسیدن به یقینی استوار تبیین می‌نماید. براین‌اساس، ضعف‌های مقطعی در گزارش‌های قرآنی، به‌معنای نفی کمال نهایی آنان نیست. این پژوهش درنهایت، گامی در جهت کاهش تعارضات تفسیری و تقویت همگرایی در فهم قرآنی بهشمار می‌آید.

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دانشگاه قم پژوهش های تفسیر تطبیقی 2476-4191 12 1 2026 06 22 A Comparative Study of Exegetical Views on Verses 164–166 of Sūrah al-Ṣāffāt بررسی تطبیقی آرای مفسران درباره آیات 164 تا 166 سوره صافات 77 101 3931 10.22091/ptt.2025.13687.2500 FA علی دریس دانش‌آموخته دکتری، رشته تفسیر تطبیقی دانشگاه یزد، یزد، ایران 0009-0005-9583-4271 محمدعلی حیدری مزرعه آخوند دانشیار، گروه علوم قرآن و حدیث، دانشگاه یزد، یزد، ایران 0009-0005-9583-4271 بمانعلی دهقان منگابادی دانشیار، گروه علوم قرآن و حدیث، دانشگاه یزد، یزد، ایران. 0000-0003-1918-552X Journal Article 2025 08 20 Verses 164–166 of Sūrah al-Ṣāffāt (Qur’an 37) are among the Qur’anic passages that have generated exegetical disagreement regarding both their speaker and the referents of their pronouns. The predominant interpretation attributes these verses to the speech of the angels. The principal aim of this study is to critique this interpretation and to reconstruct the meaning of the verses in light of the contextual coherence of the Sūrah. Employing a descriptive-analytical method, the study examines the structural composition of Sūrah al-Ṣāffāt, analyzes the context of verses 149–182, and critically evaluates the views of Qur’anic exegetes. The findings indicate that, although the angel-centered interpretation enjoys widespread acceptance within the exegetical tradition, it is not fully compatible with the structure of Sūrah al-Ṣāffāt, particularly the context of verses 149–182. Within this context, the dominant theme of the Sūrah is the affirmation of divine unity (Tawḥīd), the rejection of polytheism, the exposure of the polytheists’ allegiance to jinn and devils, and the emphasis on the status of the “sincere servants of God” (ʿIbād Allāh al-mukhlaṣīn). An examination of the relationship between verses 164–166 and the surrounding passages demonstrates that these verses function to elucidate the status and characteristics of these sincere servants. Furthermore, the connection of these verses with the oaths at the beginning of the Sūrah and with its concluding statements reinforces the coherence of this interpretation. Accordingly, interpreting the verses under discussion as a description of the prophets and the Ahl al-Bayt (peace be upon them) within the framework of the concept of ʿIbād al-mukhlaṣ is more consistent with the structure of the Sūrah, the contextual flow of its verses, and the exegetical traditions. Extended Abstract Introduction Verses 164–166 of Sūrah al-Ṣāffāt (Qur’an 37) are among the Qur’anic passages that have given rise to diverse exegetical opinions concerning the identity of their speaker and the referents of their pronouns. The predominant view among exegetes attributes these verses to the speech of the angels and interprets them as a refutation of the polytheists’ claims regarding the angels. In contrast, a number of Shiʿi exegetes, drawing upon traditions transmitted from the Ahl al-Bayt (peace be upon them), have applied these verses to the Imams and the divinely appointed successors. Beyond these two major approaches, some exegetes have advanced mystical or universalizing interpretations, extending the referents of the verses to various ontological ranks of existence or to spiritual wayfarers on the path toward God. Despite the abundance of these interpretations, examination reveals that a considerable portion of the exegetical literature is influenced less by the structure of the surah and the contextual flow of its verses than by the apparent resemblance between verses 164–166 and the oaths that open the surah. Accordingly, the principal question addressed in this study is what meaning these verses assume within the overall structure of Sūrah al-Ṣāffāt and the context of verses 149–182, and to what extent the angel-centered interpretation accords with the thematic development of the Sūrah. The significance of this question lies in the fact that Sūrah al-Ṣāffāt exhibits a clear thematic unity from beginning to end. The Sūrah opens with the proclamation of divine unity (Tawḥīd), proceeds to criticize adherence to devils and jinn, clarifies the status of the “sincere servants of God” (ʿIbād Allāh al-mukhlaṣīn), recounts the histories of the prophets and their opponents, and ultimately returns to a critique of polytheistic beliefs. Consequently, determining the place of verses 164–166 within this conceptual framework is essential for understanding the surah’s overarching purpose. The originality of the present study lies in its examination of this issue not merely through the transmission of exegetical opinions and traditions, but through an analysis of the structure of the Sūrah, an investigation of the interrelationship among its verses, and an assessment of its internal coherence. The study adopts a descriptive-analytical method based on the collection and classification of exegetical views, contextual analysis of the relevant verses, and the evaluation of traditions in light of the Qur’an. Research Findings A survey of exegetical opinions indicates that the angel-centered interpretation constitutes the dominant view among exegetes. Nevertheless, an analysis of the structure of Sūrah al-Ṣāffāt points to a different conclusion. The structure of the Sūrah demonstrates that two fundamental themes govern its discourse throughout: the affirmation of divine unity and the negation of any partner alongside God, and the necessity of following God’s chosen servants rather than jinn and devils. In the opening section of the Sūrah, following the affirmation of God’s oneness, the impotence of the devils and the fate of those who mislead others and their followers are described. Thereafter, the “sincere servants of God” (ʿIbād Allāh al-mukhlaṣīn) are introduced as a distinguished group exempt from the fate of the misguided. The surah then recounts the narratives of Noah, Abraham, Moses, Aaron, Elias, Lot, and Jonah, emphasizing the salvation of the sincere servants and the destruction of those who opposed them. An examination of verses 149–182 demonstrates that this section functions as the Sūrah’s concluding synthesis and a return to the question of polytheism. God commands the Prophet (PBUH) to dispute with the polytheists and challenge the false attributions they ascribe to Him. Within this context, the verse, “they have set up a kinship between Him and the jinn” (37:158), occupies a pivotal position, for it demonstrates that the principal concern of this section is the exposure of the polytheists’ allegiance to jinn and devils. Furthermore, the connection of verses 164–166 with verses 167–169, in which the polytheists express the wish that they might be among the sincere servants of God, as well as with verses 171–182, which speak of the divine messengers, God’s support for them, and His peace upon the messengers, indicates that the focus of the discourse remains the sincere servants of God. Moreover, a comparison between verses 164–166 and the oaths at the beginning of the Sūrah reveals a semantic correspondence between al-ṣāffāt ṣaffan, al-zājirāt zajran, and al-tāliyāt dhikran and the characteristics described in these verses. Conclusion An examination of the structure of Sūrah al-Ṣāffāt, together with an analysis of the context of verses 149–182 and a critical evaluation of exegetical opinions, demonstrates that the prevalent angel-centered interpretation of verses 164–166 is not fully consistent with the overall coherence of the Sūrah. By contrast, contextual and structural evidence indicates that these verses are intended to elucidate the status and characteristics of the “sincere servants of God” (ʿibād Allāh al-mukhlaṣīn), who constitute the axis of divine guidance throughout the Sūrah and stand in contrast to the followers of jinn and devils. Accordingly, the verses under discussion may be understood as a description of the prophets and the Ahl al-Bayt (peace be upon them) within the conceptual framework of the sincere servants (ʿIbād al-mukhlaṣ). In addition to being more consistent with the structure and overarching purpose of the Sūrah, this interpretation accords with the exegetical traditions transmitted from the Ahl al-Bayt (peace be upon them). It further suggests that one of the principal aims of these verses is to present the authentic model of divine guidance and to emphasize adherence to God’s sincere servants. References Fayḍ al-Kāshānī, Muḥammad ibn Shāh Murtaḍā. (1373 SH). Tafsīr al-Ṣāfī. Maktabat al-Ṣadr. [In Arabic]. Ibn Abī Ḥātim, ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn Muḥammad. (1419 AH). Tafsīr al-Qurʾān al-ʿAẓīm. Maktabat Nizār Muṣṭafā al-Bāz. [In Arabic]. Makārim Shīrāzī, Nāṣir. (1374 SH). Tafsīr-i Nemūneh. Dār al-Kutub al-Islāmiyyah. [In Persian]. Qummī, ʿAli ibn Ibrāhīm. (1404 AH). Tafsīr al-Qummī. Dār al-Kitāb. [In Arabic]. Ṭabarānī, Sulaymān ibn Aḥmad. (2008). Tafsīr al-Qurʾān al-ʿAẓīm. Dār al-Kitāb al-Thaqāfī. [In Arabic]. Ṭabarī, Muḥammad ibn Jarīr. (1422 AH). Jāmiʿ al-Bayān fī Tafsīr al-Qurʾān. Dār al-Maʿrifah. [In Arabic]. Ṭabāṭabāʾī, Muḥammad Ḥusayn. (1352 SH). Al-Mīzān fī Tafsīr al-Qurʾān. Muʾassasat al-Aʿlamī lil-Maṭbūʿāt. [In Arabic]. Ṭabrisī, Faḍl ibn al-Ḥasan. (1408 AH). Majmaʿ al-Bayān fī Tafsīr al-Qurʾān. Nāṣir Khusrow. [In Arabic]. Ṭūsī, Muḥammad ibn al-Ḥasan. (n.d.). Al-Tibyān fī Tafsīr al-Qurʾān. Dār Iḥyāʾ al-Turāth al-ʿArabī. [In Arabic]. Zamakhsharī, Maḥmūd ibn ʿUmar. (1407 AH). Al-Kashshāf. Dār al-Kitāb al-ʿArabī. [In Arabic]. آیات 164 تا 166 سوره صافات، ازجمله آیاتی است که درمورد گوینده و مرجع ضمایر آن، اختلاف تفسیری وجود دارد. دیدگاه مشهور، این آیات را گفتار فرشتگان دانسته‌است. مسئله اصلی تحقیق، نقد این قرائت و بازسازی معنای آیات در پرتو انسجام سیاقی سوره است. روش پژوهش، توصیفی-تحلیلی است و بر تحلیل ساختار سوره صافات، سیاق آیات 149 تا 182 و ارزیابی انتقادی آرای مفسران استوار است. یافته‌های پژوهش نشان می‌دهد که تفسیر فرشته‌محور، اگرچه در سنت تفسیری گسترده است اما با ساختار سوره صافات، به‌ویژه سیاق آیات 149 تا 182، سازگار نیست. در این سیاق، محور اصلی سوره صافات از آغاز تا پایان، اثبات توحید، نفی شرک، افشای پیروی مشرکان از جن و شیاطین و تاکید بر جایگاه «عباد الله المخلَصین» است. بررسی پیوند آیات 164 تا 166 با آیات پیشین و پسین، نشان می‌دهد که این آیات در مقام تبیین جایگاه و ویژگی‌های «عباد مخلَص» قرار دارند. همچنین ارتباط این آیات با سوگندهای آغاز سوره و جمع‌بندی پایانی آن، انسجام این برداشت را تقویت می‌کند. بر این اساس، تفسیر آیات مورد بحث بهعنوان توصیف انبیا و اهل‌‌بیت علیه‌السلام در چارچوب مفهوم «عباد مخلَص»، با ساختار سوره، سیاق آیات و روایات تفسیری سازگاری بیشتری دارد.

https://ptt.qom.ac.ir/article_3931_efb78134a099be49811f9ce01985fa1b.pdf

دانشگاه قم پژوهش های تفسیر تطبیقی 2476-4191 12 1 2026 06 22 Kalālah in Comparative Exegesis: A Reappraisal of Definitional Ambiguity and Its Impact on Juristic Divergences in Islamic Inheritance Law کلاله از منظر تفسیر تطبیقی: بازخوانی چالش‌های تعریفی و تاثیر آن بر واگرایی‌های فقهی در نظام ارث اسلامی 102 123 3611 10.22091/ptt.2025.12789.2451 FA میثم شعیب دانش‌آموخته دکتری فقه و مبانی حقوق اسلامی. پژوهشگر مستقل. قم، ایران. 0000-0003-2904-9601 Journal Article 2025 04 21 Despite its pivotal occurrence in Qur’an 4:12 and 4:176, the Qur’anic term kalālah has long remained one of the most contested concepts in Islamic inheritance law. The exegetical ambiguities surrounding this term have generated extensive juristic divergences among Islamic legal schools, particularly between the Imāmī and Sunni traditions. Employing a descriptive-analytical method within the framework of comparative exegesis, this study seeks to investigate the relationship between the definitional ambiguity of kalālah and the resulting juristic divergences concerning this specific issue. The findings indicate that the origins of these disagreements may be traced to three principal domains. First, the multiplicity of the lexical meanings attributed to kalālah—including encirclement, weakness, and remoteness—which has given rise to various technical definitions, identifying it either as a description of the deceased, a description of the heirs, or a term restricted to siblings. Second, the divergence in the exegetical principles and methodologies employed by the two traditions in interpreting the kalālah verses, particularly with regard to the distinction between Qur’an 4:12, which concerns maternal siblings, and Qur’an 4:176, which concerns full or paternal siblings. Third, the differing role and evidentiary authority accorded to the Sunnah, specifically the statements of the Companions in Sunni scholarship and the traditions transmitted from the Imams (‘a.s.) in Imāmī scholarship. Ultimately, the study confirms the hypothesis that exegetical ambiguity precedes juristic divergence and demonstrates that this complex challenge, rather than leading to interpretive impasse, has become a dynamic arena for ijtihād and for the advancement of inferential methodologies within Islamic inheritance law. Keywords: Kalālah; Islamic Inheritance Law; Qur’an 4:12; Qur’an 4:176 Extended Abstract Introduction Islamic inheritance law constitutes one of the areas of Islamic jurisprudence whose details are articulated in the Qurʾan with remarkable precision. Among its key concepts is the Qurʾanic term kalālah, which appears in two verses of Sūrah al-Nisāʾ (4:12 and 4:176) and has long remained one of the most contested concepts among exegetes, jurists, and Qurʾanic scholars. Generally referring to a case of inheritance involving a person who leaves neither ascendants (parents) nor descendants (children), the term has, owing to ambiguities surrounding its lexical meaning and technical scope, generated profound questions and disagreements since the earliest period of Islam. The difficulty of interpreting kalālah was such that Companions such as ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb openly acknowledged their uncertainty regarding it and repeatedly sought clarification from the Prophet (PBUH), while Abū Bakr refrained from expressing a definitive opinion. This early historical ambiguity, arising from the multiplicity of lexical meanings and the breadth of technical definitions associated with the term, directly influenced the derivation of legal rulings and the development of distinct legal doctrines within the various Islamic schools of law. Accordingly, the present study undertakes a comparative reappraisal of the exegetical roots of juristic disagreements concerning kalālah and examines how definitional challenges and the interpretive methodologies of Shiʿi and Sunni exegetes have contributed to juristic divergences in Islamic inheritance law. The significance of this inquiry lies in the fact that previous studies, including those of Naṣīrī and his colleagues and of Nassājī and Qurbānī-Niyā, while valuable, have primarily focused on semantic issues or the transmission of scholarly opinions. The gap that this article seeks to address is the absence of a systematic and in-depth comparative analysis of the direct relationship between definitional ambiguities, exegetical methodologies, and juristic divergence. The principal research question is therefore how differences in exegetical foundations and approaches to the Qurʾan—including attention to context, occasions of revelation, lexical indications, and variant readings—as well as differing conceptions of the authority of the Sunnah (the Prophetic Sunnah, the statements of the Companions, and the traditions transmitted from the Ahl al-Bayt (‘a.s.)) have produced divergent understandings of kalālah and, consequently, fundamental disagreements within Islamic inheritance law. The originality of this study lies in its comparative exegetical approach, which focuses on the roots and processes underlying the formation of disagreement and on the relationship between textual interpretation and legal formulation. The study employs a qualitative methodology based on a descriptive-analytical approach within the framework of comparative exegesis. Data were collected from authoritative exegetical, fiqh al-Qurʾan, ḥadīth, and lexical sources recognized by both traditions. The data were analyzed through a systematic comparison of Shiʿi and Sunni exegetical views concerning the verses related to kalālah. Research Findings The first and most fundamental finding of this study is that the ambiguities surrounding kalālah originate in three distinct lexical meanings: encirclement or surroundingness (as a crown encircles the head), weakness and exhaustion (suggesting indirect kinship), and remoteness in genealogical relationship. This multiplicity of lexical meanings gave rise to a range of technical definitions. On the one hand, the predominant Sunni view understands kalālah as a description of a deceased person who leaves neither offspring nor parents. A legal consequence of this interpretation is that siblings are excluded from inheritance in the presence of the paternal grandfather. On the other hand, Imāmī jurisprudence, relying on explicit traditions transmitted from the Imams (‘a.s), defines kalālah in its Qurʾanic usage exclusively as referring to the brothers and sisters of the deceased. Consequently, the grandfather is placed alongside siblings within the second class of heirs. Other definitions have also been proposed, including understanding kalālah as a description of the heirs themselves or as denoting indirect kinship generally. The second major finding concerns the nearly unanimous distinction between the two kalālah verses, albeit on different evidentiary grounds. Shiʿi exegetes primarily rely on traditions transmitted from the Imams (‘a.s.), whereas Sunni exegetes rely on the statements of the Companions, non-canonical variant readings attributed to them, and contextual indicators. This divergence in the hierarchy of authoritative sources became a foundational factor in subsequent juristic disagreements. For example, although both traditions agree regarding the inheritance shares of maternal siblings mentioned in Qurʾan 4:12—namely one-sixth for a single sibling and one-third for two or more siblings, with equal shares for males and females—they differ concerning the inheritance of full or paternal siblings addressed in Qurʾan 4:176, particularly in three areas. First, the inheritance rights of the grandfather alongside siblings: in Imāmī jurisprudence, the grandfather and siblings inherit concurrently, whereas in Sunni jurisprudence the grandfather excludes siblings from inheritance. Second, the coexistence of siblings with a daughter of the deceased: Imāmī jurists, based on the condition laysa lahu walad (“he has no child”), maintain that the daughter inherits the entire estate, whereas Sunni jurists allocate the residue to the sister or brother as an agnatic heir (ʿaṣabah). Third, the issues of ʿawl and radd: Imāmī jurisprudence rejects ʿawl while permitting radd, whereas Sunni jurisprudence accepts ʿawl. Taken together, these findings demonstrate that the clearer the indication of the Qurʾanic text—as in verse 4:12—the greater the degree of consensus. Conversely, as ambiguity increases, differing exegetical methodologies give rise to greater juristic divergence. Conclusion Through a comparative reappraisal of the definitional challenges associated with kalālah and an analysis of the exegetical methodologies employed by the two traditions, this study demonstrates that the historical ambiguity and multivalent nature of this term constituted the principal point of departure for juristic disagreements within Islamic inheritance law. The findings confirm the validity of the hypothesis that exegetical ambiguity precedes juristic divergence in the case of kalālah, since the uncertainties and disagreements among the Companions during the earliest period of Islam predated the emergence of fully developed sectarian identities. From a theoretical perspective, this case study illustrates how differences in the criteria of authoritative evidence—namely, the statements of the Companions versus the traditions transmitted from the Imams (‘a.s.)—generated distinct exegetical trajectories that ultimately produced divergent legal systems. One limitation of the present study is its focus on the two principal traditions, Imāmī and Sunni, to the exclusion of other juridical schools. Future research employing the comparative exegetical method may fruitfully examine other challenging Qurʾanic concepts and test the causal model identified in this study. References ʿAyyāshī, Muḥammad ibn Masʿūd. (1380 AH). Al-Tafsīr al-ʿAyyāshī. Maktabat al-ʿIlmiyyah al-Islāmiyyah. [In Arabic]. Baghawī, al-Ḥusayn ibn Masʿūd. (1420 AH). Tafsīr al-Baghawī al-Musammā Maʿālim al-Tanzīl. Dār Iḥyāʾ al-Turāth al-ʿArabī. [In Arabic]. Baḥrānī, Hāshim ibn Sulaymān. (1415 AH). Al-Burhān fī Tafsīr al-Qurʾān. Muʾassasat al-Biʿthah. [In Arabic]. Fayḍ Kāshānī, Muḥammad ibn Shāh Murtaḍā. (1415 AH). Tafsīr al-Ṣāfī. Maktabat al-Ṣadr. [In Arabic]. Ibn al-ʿArabī, Muḥammad ibn ʿAbdullah. (1408 AH). Aḥkām al-Qurʾān. Dār al-Jīl. [In Arabic]. Jassāṣ, Aḥmad ibn ʿAli. (1405 AH). Aḥkām al-Qurʾān. Dār Iḥyāʾ al-Turāth al-ʿArabī. [In Arabic]. Qummī, ʿAlī ibn Ibrāhīm. (1363 SH). Tafsīr al-Qummī. Dār al-Kitāb. [In Arabic]. Ṭabarī, Muḥammad ibn Jarīr. (1412 AH). Jāmiʿ al-Bayān fī Tafsīr al-Qurʾān. Dār al-Maʿrifah. [In Arabic]. Ṭūsī, Muḥammad ibn al-Ḥasan. (n.d.). Al-Tibyān fī Tafsīr al-Qurʾān. Dār Iḥyāʾ al-Turāth al-ʿArabī. [In Arabic]. Zamakhsharī, Maḥmūd ibn ʿUmar. (1407 AH). Al-Kashshāf ʿan Ḥaqāʾiq Ghawāmiḍ al-Tanzīl. Dār al-Kitāb al-ʿArabī. [In Arabic]. مسئله «کلاله» از چالش‌برانگیزترین مفاهیم قرآنی است که ابهامات تفسیری آن، زمینه‌ساز اختلافات فقهی گسترده‌ای در نظام ارث اسلامی شده‌است. این پژوهش با روش توصیفی- تحلیلی و رویکرد تفسیر تطبیقی، ریشه‌های این اختلافات را میان فقه امامیه و اهل سنت کاوش می‌کند.. یافته‌ها نشان می‌دهد که ریشه اولیه اختلافات، ابهام تاریخی و تعدد وجوه لغوی و اصطلاحی «کلاله» (به‌معنای وصف موروث، ورثه حاشیه‌ای یا اخوه) است. افزون‌براین، تفاوت در مبانی استنادی (حجیت روایات ائمه (ع) در مقابل اقوال صحابه) و تفکیک تفسیری میان آیات .

https://ptt.qom.ac.ir/article_3611_702a3028c72ed247e7fa6f7ff8b4e147.pdf

دانشگاه قم پژوهش های تفسیر تطبیقی 2476-4191 12 1 2026 06 22 An Analytical Study of the Fallacies of the People of Misguidance in the Qurʾan: A Comparative Analysis in Light of Shiʿi and Sunni Exegeses بررسی وتحلیل مغالطات اهل ضلالت در قرآن کریم، در پرتو تفاسیر فریقین 124 157 3857 10.22091/ptt.2025.13784.2509 FA عزیزالله مولوی وردنجانی استادیار گروه فقه و حقوق، دانشگاه شهرکرد، شهرکرد، ایران 0009-0007-7273-4977 محمدرضا موحدی دانشیار گروه زبان و ادبیات فارسی، دانشکده ادبیات و علوم انسانی، دانشگاه قم، ایران 0000-0001-6706-6950 Journal Article 2025 09 02 Cognitive errors and logical fallacies are among the principal causes of error in belief and ethical conduct. Examining these errors in light of the verses of the Holy Qur’an can clarify the path toward rational decision-making and behavioral reform. Throughout history, exegetes from both the Shi‘i and Sunni traditions have adopted different approaches to analyzing the reactions and arguments of disbelievers, polytheists, and hypocrites in response to revelation. Drawing on authoritative exegetical sources from both traditions, as well as concepts from cognitive psychology and informal logic, this study adopts a comparative-exegetical approach to identify and classify these errors. It employs an analytical-inferential method, combining qualitative content analysis of the relevant verses with a comparison of the views of exegetes from the two schools. The findings indicate that, from a methodological perspective, Sunni exegetes have generally formulated and explained fallacious techniques by drawing on detailed historical evidence, whereas Shi‘i exegetes, particularly ʿAllāmah al-Ṭabāṭabāʾī, have sought to highlight the tactics employed by those who have gone astray through [an incomplete phrase in the Persian source]. Among the techniques examined, demagoguery intended to obstruct understanding occurs most frequently in Sunni commentaries. Fallacies such as reductionism, analogy with an act of the self, assigning primacy to tradition and wealth, insult, distortion, incomplete quotation, spurious correlation, erroneous interpretation, and appeals to emotion are among the principal strategies employed by opponents of revelation and have received attention in the commentaries of both traditions. A comparative analysis of the views of the two traditions not only provides a more comprehensive account of the structure of these fallacies but also highlights the Qur’an’s discursive capacity to critique intellectual deviations within the exegetical traditions. It further lays the groundwork for future interdisciplinary research connecting Qur’anic studies, cognitive sciences, and critical thinking. Extended Abstract Introduction Human reasoning is continually influenced by various cognitive, emotional, and social factors, which may at times hinder the accurate evaluation of evidence and the formation of rational judgments. Contemporary research in cognitive psychology has demonstrated that many false beliefs arise not from a lack of intelligence but from systematic distortions in information processing. Informal logic, moreover, has shown that many apparently persuasive arguments are, in fact, based on logical fallacies and flawed methods of reasoning. These issues now occupy an important place in contemporary studies of critical thinking, education, communication, and decision-making. A careful examination of the verses of the Holy Qur’an reveals that this divine scripture addressed human cognitive and reasoning processes with remarkable depth centuries ago. Throughout the Qur’an, the divine prophets encounter opponents who, despite being presented with clear evidence, refuse to accept the truth and resort to logically and epistemologically flawed arguments to justify their positions. The Holy Qur’an not only reports these arguments but also critiques them, thereby exposing the mechanisms through which human thought and judgment become distorted. The Qur’an may therefore be regarded not only as a book of guidance but also as a valuable source for understanding the relationship among human cognition, reasoning, and behavior. Literature Review and Research Methodology Previous studies of Qur’anic argumentation have focused primarily on its theological and rhetorical dimensions or on the methods of argumentation employed in the Qur’an. Few studies have attempted to analyze these arguments in light of modern theories of informal logic and cognitive psychology. Furthermore, although Sunni and Shi‘i Qur’anic exegetes have identified the logical weaknesses in the arguments advanced by deniers when interpreting verses concerning the dialogues between the prophets and their opponents, relatively little research has systematically compared their views or examined them in relation to concepts such as logical fallacies, cognitive biases, and critical thinking. The present study therefore seeks to address this gap by adopting an interdisciplinary approach and revealing the epistemological potential of the Qur’an for analyzing human reasoning processes. This study employs a descriptive-analytical method within a comparative framework. First, the verses reporting the arguments of disbelievers, polytheists, hypocrites, and other opponents of the prophets were collected and analyzed. The interpretations of prominent Sunni Qur’anic exegetes, including al-Ṭabarī, al-Zamakhsharī, and Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzī, and those of Shi‘i exegetes, particularly ʿAllāmah al-Ṭabāṭabāʾī and Ayatollah Makārim Shīrāzī, were then examined and compared. In the next stage, the findings were evaluated in light of established classifications in informal logic and fundamental concepts in cognitive psychology to determine the extent to which Qur’anic analyses converge with contemporary theories of cognitive and reasoning errors. This methodology makes it possible to examine Qur’anic arguments not merely as historical accounts but as a transhistorical model for evaluating the soundness of reasoning and the integrity of epistemic conduct. The originality of this study lies in its integration of three fields—Qur’anic studies, informal logic, and cognitive psychology—within a unified analytical framework. This interdisciplinary synthesis demonstrates that the Holy Qur’an not only presents doctrinal teachings but also provides enduring criteria for identifying deceptive arguments, cultivating intellectual responsibility, and strengthening evidence-based judgment. The findings of this study may therefore contribute not only to Qur’anic scholarship but also to the fields of critical-thinking education, the ethics of dialogue, communication, and discourse analysis. Research Findings An examination of the selected verses of the Holy Qur’an demonstrates that, rather than presenting logical, evidence-based arguments, the opponents of the divine prophets employed distinct and recurring patterns of fallacious reasoning. These fallacies were not merely rhetorical devices or historical phenomena; rather, they constituted cognitive strategies used to preserve prior beliefs, defend individual and social interests, and resist the transformative message of revelation. A comparative study of Shi‘i and Sunni Qur’anic exegeses further indicates that both exegetical traditions agree on the existence of these patterns of reasoning, although they emphasize different aspects when analyzing their causes and consequences. The first category consists of fallacies based on distortion and the inversion of truth. This category includes reductionism, false causal explanations, incomplete quotation, textual distortion, and the arbitrary interpretation of verses. The Holy Qur’an repeatedly refers to individuals who remove the statements of the prophets from their original contexts or alter the meaning of revelation through erroneous interpretations. Shi‘i Qur’anic exegetes generally regard such conduct as evidence of deviation in epistemological foundations and disruption of cognitive processes, whereas Sunni exegetes often emphasize the historical, literary, and rhetorical dimensions of these distortions. The second category comprises fallacies based on unsupported claims and the substitution of psychological influence for rational argumentation. This group includes poisoning the well, appeals to ignorance, shifting the burden of proof, appeals to false authority, emotional manipulation, intimidation and threats, wishful thinking, and argumentative traps. Rather than responding directly to the clear evidence presented by the prophets, their opponents relied on inherited traditions, social status, political power, or psychological pressure to persuade their audiences. The Holy Qur’an presents these methods as signs of logical weakness and an inability to offer sound proof, since persuasion in such cases rests not on evidence but on emotion, fear, prejudice, or apparent authority. Exegetes from both traditions identify these methods as major causes of intellectual deviation, although Shi‘i exegetes devote greater attention to their epistemological and psychological roots. The third category consists of fallacies employed to prevent rational dialogue from taking place. The creation of ambiguity, diversion of the discussion, generation of mental confusion, interruption of logical communication, and disruption of the dialogical environment are among the principal examples in this category. In numerous instances, the Holy Qur’an reports that the opponents of the prophets prevented people from listening to the divine verses, created disturbances to obstruct the hearing of revelation, or diverted the discussion by raising irrelevant or mocking questions. Classical exegetes regarded such conduct as evidence that the opponents were unable to respond to the prophets’ clear arguments and therefore adopted strategies aimed at disrupting communication and dialogue rather than engaging in rational debate. A comparative examination of the Qur’anic exegetes’ views demonstrates that, despite their methodological differences, both exegetical traditions agree on a fundamental principle: many instances of denial arise not from a lack of evidence but from disruptions in the processes of reasoning and judgment. In their view, factors such as arrogance, blind imitation, prejudice, attachment to worldly interests, and the dominance of emotion over reason create the conditions in which fallacies emerge. Under such circumstances, rather than adopting truth as the standard of judgment, individuals employ flawed arguments to preserve their prior beliefs and avoid accepting reality. Thus, logical fallacies in the Qur’an are not merely theoretical errors but also reflections of moral and cognitive disorders in human beings. A comparison of these findings with contemporary theories of informal logic and cognitive psychology also reveals considerable conceptual convergence. Many of the patterns of reasoning condemned in the Qur’an correspond to concepts such as confirmation bias, authority bias, motivated reasoning, emotional reasoning, excessive simplification, and selective perception. This correspondence demonstrates that the Qur’anic analysis of the mechanisms of the human mind is not confined to the historical context of the period of revelation but can also explain many epistemological and communicative phenomena in the contemporary world. Accordingly, the Qur’an provides transhistorical criteria for distinguishing sound reasoning from intellectual deception and calls upon human beings to exercise evidence-based judgment, rational reflection, and ethical responsibility in the realm of thought. Conclusion The findings of this study demonstrate that, in recounting the dialogues between the prophets and their opponents, the Holy Qur’an does not confine itself to presenting doctrinal disagreements or reporting historical events. Rather, through a careful analysis of the methods of reasoning employed by deniers, it offers a comprehensive model for identifying logical errors and cognitive deviations. The comparative examination of Shi‘i and Sunni Qur’anic exegeses revealed that both exegetical traditions regard logical fallacies as among the principal means used by the opponents of revelation to resist the truth. Both traditions attribute these fallacies to such motives as prejudice, imitation, a sense of superiority, attachment to worldly interests, and the dominance of emotion over reason. Nevertheless, clear differences between the approaches of the two exegetical schools also emerge. Sunni Qur’anic exegetes generally highlight the historical, literary, and rhetorical contexts of these arguments, whereas Shi‘i exegetes, particularly ʿAllāmah al-Ṭabāṭabāʾī, place greater emphasis on the epistemological foundations, cognitive processes, and psychological roots of these deviations. Taken together, these two approaches provide a more comprehensive account of the mechanisms through which human thought becomes distorted. Furthermore, comparing the Qur’anic findings with developments in informal logic and cognitive psychology demonstrates that many of the fallacies discussed in the Qur’an correspond to established concepts such as confirmation bias, authority bias, motivated reasoning, emotional reasoning, selective perception, and cognitive simplification. This convergence reveals the considerable potential of Qur’anic epistemology for analyzing the intellectual and communicative issues of the contemporary world. It also demonstrates that Qur’anic teachings may be applied in such fields as critical-thinking education, media literacy, the ethics of dialogue, discourse analysis, and efforts to counter misinformation. The Holy Qur’an is therefore not only a book of religious guidance but also a valuable source for explaining the principles of rational judgment, epistemic responsibility, and evidence-based dialogue. From this perspective, by integrating Qur’anic studies, comparative exegesis, informal logic, and cognitive psychology, the present study offers an interdisciplinary framework for a deeper understanding of the mechanisms of reasoning and intellectual deviation. It may also provide a foundation for future research in the fields of education, cognitive studies, and the philosophy of argumentation. References The Holy Qur’an Beck, Aaron T. Cognitive Therapy and the Emotional Disorders. Ellis, Albert. Reason and Emotion in Psychotherapy. Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzī, Muḥammad ibn ʿUmar. Mafātīḥ al-Ghayb (al-Tafsīr al-Kabīr). Khandān, Ḥasan. Mughālaṭāt. Makārim Shīrāzī, Nāṣir, et al. Tafsīr-i Nemūneh. Muṭahharī, Murtaḍā. Majmūʿah-yi Āthār. Pohl, Walter. Fallacies and Argumentation. Ṭabāṭabāʾī, Sayyid Muḥammad Ḥusayn. Al-Mīzān fī Tafsīr al-Qurʾan. Zamakhsharī, Maḥmūd ibn ʿUmar. Al-Kashshāf ʿan Ḥaqāʾiq al-Tanzīl. خطاهای شناختی و مغالطات منطقی از عوامل اصلی لغزش در باور و کنش اخلاقی به شمار می‌آیند. بررسی این خطاها در پرتو آیات قرآن کریم می‌تواند مسیر تصمیم‌گیری عقلانی و اصلاح رفتاری را شفاف‌تر کند. مفسران فریقین (شیعه و اهل سنت) در طول تاریخ، با رویکردهای متفاوت، به تحلیل واکنش‌ها و استدلال‌های کافران، مشرکان و منافقان در برابر وحی پرداخته‌اند. این پژوهش با رویکرد تفسیری–تطبیقی و بهره‌گیری از منابع تفسیری معتبر فریقین، در کنار مفاهیم روان‌شناسی شناختی و منطق غیرصوری، به شناسایی و دسته‌بندی این خطاها می‌پردازد. روش تحقیق تحلیلی–استنباطی است و با تحلیل محتوای کیفی آیات و مقایسه دیدگاه‌های مفسران دو مکتب همراه است. نتایج نشان می‌دهد از حیث روش شناسی مفسرین اهل تسنن بیشتر شگردهای مغالطی را ،مستند به بیان جزئیات از شواهد تاریخی صورت‌بندی کرده اند؛و مفسیرین شیعه بویژه علامه طباطبائی،به دنبال برجسته سازی ترفندهای اهل ضلالت از طریق است؛غوغاسالاری برای اخلال در فهم، بیشترین بسآمد را در تفاسیر اهل تسنن داشته و و مغالطاتی چون تحویلی‌نگری، قیاس با فعل نفس، اصالت‌بخشی به سنت و ثروت، توهین، تحریف، نقل‌قول ناقص، هم‌بستگی‌های غیرواقعی، تفسیر ناصواب و توسل به هیجانات از مهم‌ترین شگردهای مخالفان وحی بوده که در تفاسیر فریقین مورد توجه قرار گرفته . تحلیل تطبیقی دیدگاه‌های فریقین نه‌تنها تصویر کامل‌تری از ساختار این مغالطات به دست می‌دهد، بلکه ظرفیت گفتمانی قرآن برای نقد انحرافات فکری را در سنت‌های تفسیری برجسته می‌کند و بستر پژوهش‌های میان‌رشته‌ای آینده در پیوند قرآن‌پژوهی، علوم شناختی و تفکر انتقادی را فراهم می‌آورد.

https://ptt.qom.ac.ir/article_3857_98416d5486e1ead9f748a3aaaec032cb.pdf